>Phoebetria palpebrata (Light-mantled Albatross)

Light-mantled Albatross

Light-mantled Albatross
Light-mantled Albatross in flight
Conservation status
Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Procellariiformes
Family:	Diomedeidae
Genus:	Phoebetria
Species:	P. palpebrata
Binomial name
Phoebetria palpebrata (Forster, 1785)
Synonyms
Diomedea palpebrata

The Light-mantled Albatross, Phoebetria palpebrata, also known as the Grey-mantled Albatross or the Light-mantled Sooty Albatross, is a small albatross in the genusPhoebetria, which it shares with the Sooty Albatross. The Light-mantled Albatross was first described as Phoebetria palpebrata by Johann Reinhold Forster, in 1785, based on a specimen from south of the Cape of Good Hope.

Physiology

Light-mantled Albatrosses share some identifying features with other Procellariiformes. They have nasal tubes on the upper bill called naricorns, though with albatrosses these are on the sides of the upper mandible rather than the top. They also have a salt gland above the nasal passage which excretes a concentrated saline solution to maintain osmotic balance, due to the amount of seawater imbibed. The bills of the Procellariiformes are unique in that they are covered with from seven to nine horny plates. These birds produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used to deter predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.

Description

The Light-mantled Albatross is largely sooty-brown or blackish in colour, darker on the head, with paler upperparts from the nape to the upper tail-coverts which are grey to light grey, palest on the mantle and back. The plumage has been described as being similar in appearance to the colouring of a Siamese cat. The eyes are partly encircled with thin post-orbital crescents of very short grey feathers. The bill is black with a blue sulcus and a greyish-yellow line along the lower mandible, and is about 105 mm (4.1 in). Measurements show that males and females are similar in size, with average length of 79–89 cm (31–35 in), wing-span of 183–218 cm (72–86 in), and weight of 2.5–3.7 kg (5.5–8.2 lb).

Distribution and habitat

The Light-mantled Albatross has a circumpolar pelagic distribution in the Southern Ocean. It ranges in latitude from the pack-ice around Antarctica, with the southernmost record from 78°S in the Ross Sea, to about 35°S, with occasional records from further north along theHumboldt Current. It breeds on several subantarctic islands including the Prince Edward Island, Marion Island, Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Island, St. Paul Island, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Macquarie Island, Campbell Island, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands and South Georgia and at least on one island in the maritime Antarctic at 62°S on King George Island. Except when breeding, its habitat is entirely marine, and it will forage from the edges of the Antarctic pack-ice to about 40° S. When foraging during the breeding season, the birds will remain closer to their nest sites.

Behaviour

They have a loud shrill voice that is trumpet-like, and when threatened will snap their bills or utilize a throaty 'gaaaa'. When courting will utilize aerial displays and formation flying. They will also use mutual calling with deviations in tone brought occurring by head positioning, and finally, they do use their tail in displays more than other albatrosses.

Light-mantled Albatross sitting on nest

Light-mantled Albatross, head detail

Reproduction

The species breeds in loose colonies or small groups, and sometimes is a solitary breeder. The nest is built on a vegetated cliff ledge, or a steep slope, sheltered from the prevailing westerly winds. Structurally it is a low mound of peat and mud, 15–30 cm (5.9–12 in) high and 45–55 cm (18–22 in) wide at the base, with a cupped hollow at the top.It incorporates some plant material and with a grass lining. Around October or November, a single egg is laid, which is not replaced if lost. Both sexes incubate alternately in shifts that vary from a day or two up to nearly a month in length. The incubation period is 65–72 days.After hatching in December or January, which takes 3 to 5 days, the chicks are brooded in shifts for about 20 days, following which they are left alone in the nests while the adults forage, returning to feed the chicks by regurgitation every 2–3 days. The entire nestling period from hatching to fledging, which occurs in May or June, lasts 140–170 days. Pairs form committed pair-bonds which may last for decades, being renewed through complex courtship displays at the breeding site. On average, birds begin breeding when they reach 8 to 15 years old, after which they breed biennially, fledging a chick every five years or so. They are capable of breeding until at least 32 years old and living to 40 or longer.

Breeding Population and Trends

Breeding Location	Breeding Pairs	Trend
Possession Island	996	-13% over 15 years
Rest of Crozet Islands	1,404	Unknown
South Georgia	5,000 to 7,500	Unknown
Kerguelen Islands	3,000 to 5,000	Unknown
Auckland Islands	5,000	Unknown
Macquarie Island	2,000	Unknown
Campbell Island	1,600	Unknown
Antipodes Island	170	Unknown
Heard Island	200 to 500	Unknown
Marion Island	179	Stable
Prince Edward Island	150	Unknown
King George Island	5	Unknown
Total	58,000	-20% to -29% over 100 years

Feeding

The principal diet of Light-mantled Albatrosses consists of squid and krill, though other crustaceans and fish are taken as well as seal,penguin and petrel carrion. They sometimes feed in association with pilot whales and Southern Right Whale Dolphins, and occasionally follow ships. Food is usually taken on or close to the surface of the ocean, within a depth of 5 m (16 ft), though there is a record of a 12 m (39 ft) dive.

Conservation

The Light-mantled Albatross population is estimated at about 58,000, from a 1998 estimate, and is declining. Threats and population status are poorly quantified and the species is classified as Near Threatened, with an occurrence range of 44,300,000 km² (17,100,000 sq mi).

Potential predators on some breeding islands are giant petrels, feral cats and rodents. At sea they are threatened by bycatch in the longline fishery and through starvation by eating plastic marine debris.

>>Genus Phoebetria >Phoebetria fusca (Sooty Albatross)

Sooty Albatross

Sooty Albatross
Stuffed specimen at the Natural History Museum, Vienna
Conservation status
Endangered (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Procellariiformes
Family:	Diomedeidae
Genus:	Phoebetria
Species:	P. fusca
Binomial name
Phoebetria fusca (Hilsenberg, 1822)

The Sooty Albatross, Dark-mantled Sooty Albatross or Dark-mantled Albatross,Phoebetria fusca, is a species of bird in the albatross family. They breed on sub-Antarctic islands and range at sea across the Southern Ocean from South America to Australia.

Taxonomy

Sooty Albatrosses are a type of Albatross that belong to Diomedeidae family and come from the Procellariiformes order, along with Shearwaters, Fulmars, Storm-petrels, and Diving-petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. Although the nostrils on the Albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a high saline solution from their nose.

Description

The Sooty Albatross is a medium sized albatross and measures about 85 cm (33 in), with a 2 m (6.6 ft) wingspan. Adult body mass ranges from 2.1 to 3.4 kg (4.6 to 7.5 lb). It is sooty-brown with darker shading on the sides of its head. It has a white crescent above and behind its eye. Its bill is black with an orange or yellow sulcus. The tail of this albatross is wide diamond shaped. Juveniles are similar to adults.

Behavior

Feeding

Their diet consists of squid, crustaceans, cephalopods, fish, and carrion.

Reproduction

The Sooty Albatross is a colonial bird; however not to the degree of other Albatrosses, as their colonies usually consist of 50 to 60 pair. They will build their nests on cliffs and steep slopes. Whereas they can mate annually they only do so biennially.

Range and habitat

This albatross nests on islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean (Gough Island and the Tristan da Cunha group) and Indian Ocean (Prince Edward Island, Marion Island, the Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Island, and Kerguelen Islands). They forage in both oceans north to about 30°S.

Conservation

The IUCN ranks the Sooty Albatross as endangered with an occurrence range of 40,800,000 km² (15,800,000 sq mi) and a breeding range of 1,900 km² (730 sq mi). A 1998 estimate place the population at 42,000 adult birds.

Populations have been shrinking 75% over the last 90 years; although the rate of reduction has recently slowed. The 21st century has seen stable populations at Gough Island.

This species is not overly affected by longline fisheries, but instead by domestic cats eating eggs and chicks on Amsterdam Island and the Kerguelen Islands. Avian cholera, pasteurellosis, and erysipelas are major threats. Illegal poaching has nearly ceased.

Studies and surveys are conducted to assist in slowing its demise. It is a protected species on the Tristan da Cunha group, Gough Island is a World Heritage Site, and Prince Edward Island, Gough Island, and Inaccessible Island in the Tristan da Cunha group are protected nature preserves. Also, in 2007, the Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Island, and the Kerguelen Islands were declared nature preserves.

Breeding Population and Trends

Breeding Location	Breeding Pair	Trend
Gough Island	5,000	– 50% over 28 years
Tristan da Cunha	4,125 to 5,250	Unknown
Crozet Islands	2,620	−58% between 1980 and 1995 (Possession Island only)
Prince Edward Island and Marion Island	1,720	−25% between 1990 and 1998 (Marion Island only)
Kerguelen Islands	<5	Unknown
Amsterdam Island	300 to 400	Unknown
Total	12,500 to 19,000	-75% over 90 years

>Thalassarche melanophrys (Black-browed Albatross)

Black-browed Albatross

Black-browed Albatross
Conservation status
Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Procellariiformes
Family:	Diomedeidae
Genus:	Thalassarche
Species:	T. melanophrys
Binomial name
Thalassarche melanophrys (Temminck 1828)
Synonyms
Diomedea melanophris

Sub-adult plumage

The Black-browed Albatross or Black-browed Mollymawk, Thalassarche melanophrys, is a large seabird of the albatross family Diomedeidae, and it is the most widespread and common albatross.

Taxonomy

Mollymawks are a type of Albatross that belong to Diomedeidae family and come from the Procellariiformes order, along with Shearwaters, Fulmars, Storm-petrels, and Diving-petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. Although the nostrils on the Albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a high saline solution from their nose.

In 1998, Robertson & Nunn published the need for the Campbell Albatross, Thalassacre melanphrys, to be split from this species. Over the course of the next few years more experts agreed, starting with BirdLife International in 2000, Brooke in 2004. James Clements has not agreed yet, neither has ACAP, and SACC recognizes the need for a proposal.

The Black-browed Albatross was first described as Diomedea melanophris by Coenraad Jacob Temminck, in 1828, based on a specimen from Cape of Good Hope.

Etymology

The origin of the name melanophrus comes from two Greek words; melas or melanos meaningblack, and ophrus which means the eyebrow. This, of course, is referring to its black plumage around its eyes.

Description

East of Tasmania, Southern Ocean

The Black-browed Albatross is a medium-sized albatross, at 80–95 cm (31–37 in) long with a 200–240 cm (79–94 in) wingspan and an average weight of 2.9–4.7 kg (6.4–10 lb). They can have a natural lifespan of over 70 years. It has a bright pink saddle and upperwings that contrast with the orange, rump, and underparts. The underwing is predominantly white with broad, irregular, black margins. It has a dark eyebrow and a yellow-orange bill with a darker reddish-orange tip. Juveniles have dark horn-colored bills with dark tips, and a grey head and collar. They also have dark underwings. The features that identify it from other mollymawks are the dark eyestripe which gives it its name, a broad black edging to the white underside of its wings, white head and orange bill, tipped darker orange. They are similar to Grey-headed Albatrosses but the latter have wholly dark bills and more complete dark head markings.

Range and habitat

Breeding Population and Trends

	Location	Population	Date	Trend
	Falkland Islands	399,416 pair	2007	Decreasing 0.7% yr
	South Georgia Island	74,296 pair	2006	Decreasing
	Chile	122,000 pair	2007
	Antipodes Island	??? pair	1998
	Campbell Island	??? pair	1998
	Heard Island	600 pair	1998	Increasing
	McDonald Island	??? pair	1998
	Crozet Islands	??? pair	1998
	Kerguelen Islands	??? pair	1998	Decreasing
	Macquarie Island	??? pair	1998
	Snares Islands	??? pair	1998
	Total	150,000	2005	Decreasing

The Black-browed Albatross is circumpolar in the southern oceans, and it breeds on 12 islands throughout the southern oceans. In the Atlantic Ocean, it breeds on the Falklands, Islas Diego Ramírez, and South Georgia. In thePacific Ocean it breeds on Islas Ildefonso, Diego De Almagro, Isla Evangelistas, Campbell Island, Antipodes Islands, Snares Islands, andMacquarie Island. Finally in the Indian Ocean it breeds on the Crozet Islands,Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, and McDonald Island.There are an estimated 1,220,000 birds alive with 600,853 breeding pairs, as estimated by a 2005 count. Of these birds, 402,571 breed in the Falklands, 72,102 breed on South Georgia Island, 120,171 breed on the Chilean islands of Islas Ildefonso, Diego De Almagro, Isla Evangelistas, and Islas Diego Ramírez. 600 pairs breed on Heard Island, Finally, the remaining 5,409 pairs breed on the remaining islands. This particular species of albatross prefers to forage over shelf and shelf-break areas. Falkland Island birds winter near thePatagonian Shelf, and birds from South Georgia forage in South Africanwaters, using the Benguela Current, and the Chilean birds forage over thePatagonian Shelf, the Chilean Shelf, and even make it as far as New Zealand. It is the most likely albatross to be found in the North Atlantic due to a northerly migratory tendency. There have been 20 possible sightings in theContinental United States.

Behavior

Albatrosses associating with a killer whale. Picture taken by an albatros-borne camera.

Taking off

Colonies are very noisy as they bray to mark their territory, and also cackle harshly. They use their fanned tail in courting displays.

Feeding

The Black-browed Albatross feeds on fish, squid, crustaceans, carrion, and fishery discards. This species has been observed stealing food from other species.

Reproduction

Black-browed albatross colony on Saunders Island, Falkland Islands

This species normally nests on steep slopes covered with tussock grass and sometimes on cliffs; however, on the Falklands it nests on flat grassland on the coast. They are an annual breeder laying one egg from between September 20 and November 1, although the Falklands, Crozet, and Kerguelen breeders lay about 3 weeks earlier. Incubation is done by both sexes and last 68 to 71 days. After hatching, the chicks take 120 to 130 days to fledge. Juveniles will return to the colony after 2 to 3 years but only to practice courtship rituals, as they will start breeding around the 10th year.

Conservation

the IUCN classifies this species as Endangered due to drastic reduction in population. Bird Island near South Georgia Island had a 4% per year loss of nesting pairs,and the Kerguelen Island population had a 17% reduction from 1979 to 1995. Diego Ramírez decreased in the 1980s but has rebounded recently, and the Falklands had a surge in the 1980s probably due to abundant fish waste from trawlers; however, recent censuses have shown drastic reduction in the majority of the nesting sites there. Between all the ups and downs, the overall situation is grim, with a 67% decline over 64 years.

Increased longline fishing in the southern oceans, especially around the Patagonian Shelf and around South Georgia has been attributed as a major cause of the decline of this bird, In fact, the Black-browed Albatross is the most common bird killed by fisheries. Not to be left out trawl fishing, especially around the Patagonian Shelf and near South Africa, is also a large reason.

Conservation efforts underway start with this species being placed on Convention on Migratory Species Appendix II, and Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Annex 1, it is being monitored on half of the islands, and most of the breeding sites are reserves. Heard Island, McDonald Island,Macquarie Island, and the New Zealand islands are World Heritage Sites. Finally, an initial Chilean census has been completed.

Noteworthy

Although this is a rare occurrence, on several occasions a Black-browed Albatross has summered in Scottish Gannet colonies (Bass Rock,Hermaness and now Sula Sgeir) for a number of years. Ornithologists believe that it was the same bird, known as Albert, who lives in northScotland. It is believed that the bird was blown off course into the North Atlantic over 40 years ago, and it is suspected that the bird is over 47 years old. A similar incident took place in the gannet colony in the Faroe Islands island of Mykines, where a Black-browed Albatross lived among the gannets for over 30 years. This incident is the reason why an albatross is referred to as a 'Gannet King' (Faroese: súlukongur) in Faroese.

>Thalassarche chrysostoma (Grey-headed Albatross)

Grey-headed Albatross

Grey-headed Albatross
Conservation status
Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Procellariiformes
Family:	Diomedeidae
Genus:	Thalassarche
Species:	T. chrysostoma
Binomial name
Thalassarche chrysostoma (Forster, 1785)
Synonyms
Diomedea chrysostoma

The Grey-headed Albatross, Thalassarche chrysostoma, also known as the Grey-headed Mollymawk, is a large seabird from the albatross family. It has a circumpolar distribution, nesting on isolated islands in the Southern Ocean and feeding at high latitudes, further south than any of the other mollymawks. Its name derives from its ashy-grey head, throat and upper neck.

Taxonomy

Mollymawks are a type of albatross that belong to the Diomedeidae family and come from the Procellariiformes order, along with shearwaters, fulmars, storm-petrels, and diving-petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. Although the nostrils on the Albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a concentrated brine from the nostrils.

Etymology

The meaning of the name chrysostoma is derived from two Greek words. Khrusos' means goldand stoma means the mouth, in reference to its golden bill.

Description

The Grey-headed Albatross averages 81 cm (32 in) in length and 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in wingspan. Weight can range from 2.8 to 4.4 kg (6.2 to 9.7 lb), with a mean mass of 3.65 kg (8.0 lb). It has a dark ashy-grey head, throat, and upper neck, and its upper wings, mantle, and tail, are almost black. It has a white rump, underparts, and a white crescent behind its eyes. Its bill is black, with bright yellow upper and lower ridges, thatt shades to pink-orange at the tip. Its underwings are white with a lot of black on the leading edge and less on the trailing edge. Juveniles have a black bill and head and a darker nape. Its eye crescent is indistinct and its underwing is almost completely dark.

Range and habitat

Breeding Population and Trends

Location	Population	Date	Trend
South Georgia Island	48,000 pair	2006	Declining
Marion Island	6,200 pair	2003	Stable
Prince Edward Island	3,000 pair	2003
Campbell Island	7,800 pair	2004	Declining
Macquarie Island	84 pair	1998
Crozet Islands	5,940 pair	1998
Kerguelen Islands	7,905 pair	1998
Islas Diego Ramirez	16,408 pair	2002
Total	250,000	2004	Decreasing

Grey-headed Albatrosses nest in colonies on several islands in the Southern Ocean, with large colonies on South Georgia in the South Atlantic, and smaller colonies onIslas Diego Ramírez, Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, Marion Island, and Prince Edward Island in the Indian Ocean, Campbell Island and Macquarie Island south of  New Zealand, and Chile. While breeding, they will forage for food within or south of the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone. Birds that roost in the Marion Island area forage for food in the sub-tropical zone. Juveniles or non-breeding adults fly freely throughout all the southern oceans, north to 35°S.

Behaviour

Chick at nest

Feeding

At sea the Grey-headed Albatross is highly pelagic, more so than other mollymawks, feeding in the open oceans rather than over the continental shelves. They feed predominantly on squid, taking also some fish, crustacea,carrion, cephalapods, and lampreys. Krill is less important as a food source for this species, reflecting their more pelagic feeding range. They are capable of diving as deep as 7 m (23 ft) to chase prey, but do not do so frequently.

Reproduction

A single egg is laid in a large nest, typically built on steep slopes or cliffs with tussock grass, and incubated for 72 days. Studies at South Georgia's Bird Island have shown that the growing chick is fed 616 g (21.7 oz) of food every 1.2 days, with the chick increasing in weight to around 4,900 g (170 oz). Chicks then tend to lose weight before fledging, which happens after 141 days. Chick will generally not return to the colony for 6–7 years after fledging, and will not breed for the first time until several years after that. If a pair of has managed to successfully raise a chick it will not breed in the following year, taking the year off. During this time spent away from the colony they can cover great distances, often circling the globe several times.

Conservation

Flying in Drake's Passage, Southern Ocean

The IUCN classifies this bird as vulnerable due to rapidly declining numbers. It has an occurrence range of 79,000,000 km² (31,000,000 sq mi) and a breeding range of 1,800 km² (690 sq mi),with a population, estimated in 2004, of 250,000. Estimates have place 48,000 pairs atSouth Georgia Island, 6,200 on Marion Island, 3,000 pairs on Prince Edward Island,7,800 pairs on Campbell Island, 16,408 pairs in Chile, 84 pairs on Macquarie Island, 5,940 on Crozet Island, and 7,905 on Kerguelen Islands

Populations have been shrinking based on different studies. Bird Island numbers have been reduced 20% to 30% in the last 30 years.Marion Island registered 1.75% reduction per year until 1992 and now appears to be stable. Campbell Island has seen reduction of 79% to 87% since the 1940s.Overall, the trends looks like a 30-40% reduction over 90 years (3 generations).Illegal or unregulated fishing in the Indian Ocean for the Patagonian toothfish,Dissostichus eleginoides resulted in 10 - 20,000 dead Albatrosses, mainly this species, in 1997 and 1998. Longline fishing is responsible for other deaths. Finally, possible food loss due to rising ocean temperatures may be affecting this species.

To assist this species, studies are being undertaken at most of the islands. Also, Prince Edward Island is a special nature preserve, and Campbell Island and Macquarie Island are World Heritage Sites.