>Melanitta perspicillata (Surf Scoter)

Surf Scoter

Surf Scoter
Adult male
Adult female
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta
Species:	M. perspicillata
Binomial name
Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus, 1758)

The Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) is a large sea duck, which breeds in Canada and Alaska. It is placed in the subgenus Melanitta, along with the Velvet and White-winged Scoters, distinct from the subgenus Oidemia, Black and Common Scoters.

It winters further south in temperate zones, on the coasts of the northern USA. Small numbers regularly winter in western Europe as far south as Great Britain and Ireland. Some birds may over-winter on the Great Lakes. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 5-9 eggs are laid. An egg may range from 55-79 grams (1.9-2.8 oz) and average 43.9 mm (1.7 inches) in breadth and 62.4 mm (2.5 inches) in length. Occasional (and likely accidental) brood mixing between different females occurs in areas with high densities of nests. Growth is relatively rapid and the incubation period is about 28 to 30 days. The offspring will fledge independently at about 55 days.

The adult female averages about 900 grams (2 lbs.) and 44 cm (17 inches) in length, while the adult male is on average 1050 grams (2.3 lbs.) and 48 cm (19 inches) in length, making this the smallest species of scoter on average. It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. The male is all black, except for white patches on the nape and forehead. It has a bulbous red, yellow and white bill. The females are brown birds with pale head patches. The wedge-shaped head and lack of white in the wings helps to distinguish female Surf Scoters from female Velvet Scoters.

With crab

Adult scoters of this species dive for crustaceans and molluscs, while the ducklings live off any variety of freshwater invertebrates.

In November, 2007, an oil spill in San Francisco harbour oiled and killed thousands of birds including many Surf Scoters. About 40 per cent of the birds affected were from this species. Scientists said that while the species is not endangered it has declined 50 to 70 per cent over the past 40 years and this spill could decrease populations since most of the affected birds are healthy adults.

>Melanitta deglandi (White-winged Scoter)

White-winged Scoter

White-winged Scoter
Adult male of the American race deglandi
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta
Species:	M. deglandi
Binomial name
Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte, 1850)
Subspecies
M. d. stejnegeri (Ridgway, 1887) (Asian White-winged Scoter) M. d. deglandi (Bonaparte, 1850) (American White-winged Scoter)
Synonyms
Melanitta fusca deglandi, Melanitta fusca stejnegeri

The White-winged Scoter (Melanitta deglandi) is a large sea duck.

Description

It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. This is the largest species of scoter. Females range from 950-1950 grams (2.1-4.2 lb) and 48–56 cm (19-22 inches), averaging 1180 grams (2.6 lb) and 52.3 cm (21 inches). She is brown with pale head patches. The male ranges from 1360-2128 grams (3-4.7 lb) and from 53–60 cm (21-24 inches), averaging 1380 grams (3.6 lb) and 55 cm (22 inches). He is all black, except for white around the eye and a white speculum. This scoter's bill has a black base and a large knob.

The white patches are visible but not conspicuous when the wings are folded.

There are a number of differing characteristic of the Eastern Siberian race and the American race from Alaska and Canada to west of the Hudson Bay. Males of the American subspecies have browner flanks, dark yellow coloration of most of the bill and a less tall bill knob, approaching the Velvet Scoter. The Asian form has a very tall knob at the base of its mostly orange-yellow bill. Females are identical in the field.

The White-winged Scoter was named for French zoologist Dr. Côme-Damien Degland (1787-1856).

Taxonomy

It was formerly considered to be conspecific with the Velvet Scoter. These two species, and the Surf Scoter, are placed in the subgenus Melanitta, distinct from the subgenus Oidemia, Black and Common Scoters.

Distribution

The White-winged Scoter breeds over the far north of Asia east of the Yenisey Basin, and North America. It winters further south in temperate zones, on the Great Lakes, the coasts of the northern USA and the southern coasts of Canada, and Asia as far south as China. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.

Behaviour

Breeding

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 5-11 eggs are laid. The pinkish eggs average 46.9 mm (1.8 inches) in breadth, 68.2 mm (2.7 inches) in length and 82.4 grams (2.9 oz) in weight. The incubation period can range from 25 to 30 days. After about 21 days, neighboring females may start to behave aggressively towards other nesting females, resulting in confusion and mixing of broods. By the time she is done brooding, a female may be tending to as much as 40 offspring due to the mixing from these conflicts. The female will tend to her brood for up to 3 weeks and then abandon them, but the young will usually stay together from another 3 weeks. Flight capacity is thought to be gained at 63 to 77 days of age.

Food

In freshwater, this species primarily feeds on crustaceans and insects; while in saltwater areas, it feeds on molluscs and crustaceans. The favorite foods of the American (sub)species are an amphipod (Hyalella azteca) in freshwater, and rock clams (Protothaca staminea), Atlantic razors (Siliqua spp.) and Arctic wedge clams (Mesodesma arctatus).

>Melanitta fusca (Velvet Scoter)

Velvet Scoter

Velvet Scoter
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta
Species:	M. fusca
Binomial name
Melanitta fusca (Linnaeus, 1758)

The Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca), also called a Velvet Duck or whitewing (not to be confused with the white-winged scoter), is a large sea duck, which breeds over the far north of Europe and Asia west of the Yenisey basin. A small, isolated population nests in eastern Turkey. The East Siberian and North American White-winged Scoter is sometimes considered conspecific with the Velvet Scoter, and its two constituent subspecies are then known as M. f. stejnegeri and M. f. deglandi. Velvet and White-winged Scoter, along with the Surf Scoter, are placed in the subgenus Melanitta, distinct from the subgenus Oidemia, Black and Common Scoters.

It winters further south in temperate zones, Europe as far south as Great Britain, and on the Black and Caspian Sea. Small numbers reach France and northern Spain. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 7-9 eggs are laid. This duck dives for crustaceans and molluscs.

It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. It is the largest scoter at 51–58 cm. The male is all black, except for white around the eye and a white speculum. It has a bulbous yellow bill with a black base. The females are brown birds with two pale patches on each side of the head and white wing patches.

The Velvet Scoter is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

>Melanitta americana (Black Scoter)

Black Scoter

Black Scoter
Adult male
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Superorder:	Galloanserae
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta
Subgenus:	(Oidemia)
Species:	M. americana
Binomial name
Melanitta americana (Swainson, 1832)
Synonyms
Melanitta nigra americana

The Black or American Scoter (Melanitta americana) is a large sea duck, 43 to 49 centimeters in length. Together with the Common Scoter M. nigra, it forms the subgenusOidemia; the two are sometimes considered conspecific, the Black Scoter then being referred to as M. nigra americana. Its French name, used in parts of its Canadian range, is macreuse noire (also meaning "black scoter").

Description

The adult female averages about 980 grams (2.1 lbs.) and 45 cm (18 inches) in length, while the adult male is on average 1100 grams (2.4 lbs.) and 49 cm (19 inches) in length. It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. The male is all black with a very bulbous bill which is mostly yellow,a good relation with the common scoter. The female is a brown bird with pale cheeks, very similar to female Common Scoter. This is America's only black duck, although the female may have some yellow around the nostils.

This species can be distinguished from other scoters, apart from Common, by the lack of white anywhere on the drake, and the more extensive pale areas on the female.

Vocalisations

Black Scoter and Common Scoter have diagnosably distinct vocalisations (Sangster 2009).

Distribution

The Black Scoter breeds in the far north of North America in Labrador and Newfoundland to the southeast Hudson Bay, in Alaska. It also occurs on the Siberian side of the Bering Straits east of the Yana River. It winters further south in temperate zones, on the coasts of the northern USA and Canada, on the Pacific coast south to the San Francisco Bay region and on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts, and in Asia as far south as China.

Some birds may over-winter on the Great Lakes. This species is a very rare vagrant to western Europe; only drakes are safely identifiable out of range, so females are likely to be undetected.

Ecology

This species dives for crustaceans and molluscs while migrating or wintering on the sea-coasts, and feeds on insects and their larvae, especially caddisflies, fish eggs and, more rarely, vegetation such as duck weed while nesting on freshwater. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters in winter quarters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together; in the breeding season they are less social. It has been suggested that in coastal waters this species prefers sheltered embayments, and possibly waters that include some mixed depths.

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 5-7 eggs are laid. Each eggs weighs from 60-74 grams (2-2.6 oz), or 8% of the females body weight. The incubation period may range from 27 to 31 days. Females brood their young extensively for about 3 weeks, after which the still flightless young must fend for themselves.

>Melanitta nigra (Common Scoter)

Common Scoter

Common Scoter
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta
Subgenus:	(Oidemia)
Species:	M. nigra
Binomial name
Melanitta nigra (Linnaeus, 1758)

The Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) is a large sea duck, 43-54 cm in length, which breeds over the far north of Europe and Asia east to the Olenyok River. The American/E Siberian M. americana(Black Scoter) is sometimes considered a subspecies of M. nigra.

It winters further south in temperate zones, on the coasts of Europe as far south as Morocco. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off and dive together.

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 6-8 eggs are laid.

It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. The male is all black with a bulbous bill which shows some yellow coloration around the nostrils. The female is a brown bird with pale cheeks, very similar to female Black Scoter.

This species can be distinguished from other scoters, apart from Black, by the lack of white anywhere on the drake, and the more extensive pale areas on the female.

This species dives for crustaceans and molluscs; it also eats aquatic insects and small fish when on fresh water.

The Common Scoter is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

Vocalisations

Black Scoter and Common Scoter have diagnosably distinct vocalisations (Sangster 2009).

UK population and current issues

Campbell (1977) estimated the wintering population in north-western Europe to be about 130,000, mostly in the Baltic area, and the UK population at about 20,000. There is a marked passage in spring through the Straits of Dover.

In 2003 a previously unknown wintering population of 50,000+ was found on Shell Flat in the north west of England by Cirrus Energy whilst surveying the area for a new wind farm . Due to this development and an oil spill off the coast of Wales, in 1996, questions about the Common Scoter population have been asked in the UK Parliament .

Although the Common Scoter is a winter visitor to the UK, there are some breeding pairs in the north of Scotland. The species has been placed on the RSPB conservation Red List because of a greater than fifty percent decline in this UK breeding population. In 1998 the UK Government agreed to a biodiversity action plan (BAP) for the Common Scoter to increase the breeding population to 100 pairs by 2008 . The Irish population, which had reached a peak of 150-200 pairs in the 1970s, crashed disastrously in the 1990s,and by 2010 there were no confirmed reports of breeding.

At the third steering group meeting of the UK Common Scoter Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) the population in the Shell Flat area was put at 16,500 wintering Scoter and 5,000 moulting birds, of which 4,000 used the footprint area of the proposed wind farm .

>>Genus Melanitta >Scoter

Scoter

Scoters
Adult male White-winged Scoter (Melanitta deglandi)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Anseriformes
Family:	Anatidae
Subfamily:	Merginae
Genus:	Melanitta F. Boie, 1822
Species
Melanitta nigra (Common Scoter) Melanitta americana (Black or American Scoter) Melanitta fusca (Velvet Scoter) Melanitta deglandi (White-winged Scoter) Melanitta perspicillata (Surf Scoter)
Synonyms
Oidemia

The scoters are stocky seaducks in the genus Melanitta. The drakes are mostly black and have swollen bills. Females are brown.

They breed in the far north of Europe, Asia and North America, and winter further south in temperate zones of those continents. They form large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.

Their lined nests are built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. These species dive for crustaceans and molluscs.

There are five species, grouped into two subgenera:

• subgenus Oidemia (Black and Common Scoters)
• subgenus Melanitta (Surf, Velvet and White-winged Scoters)

The presumed fossil "scoter" Melanitta ceruttii which lived in California during the Late Pliocene is now placed in the genus Histrionicus.